Common heritage of mankind principal has been adopted numerous times before in international space law U.S. is already party to

Application of the common heritage of mankind principle to the Arctic would not be unique; the international community has embraced this theory in other treaties, such as UNCLOS and the Agreement Governing the Activities on the Moon and Other Celes- tial Bodies (Moon Agreement).²¹³ In UNCLOS, “the sea-bed and ocean floor . . . beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, as well as its resources, are the common heritage of mankind, the explora- tion and exploitation of which shall be carried out for the benefit of mankind as a whole.”²¹⁴ Likewise, in the Moon Agreement the natural resources of “outer space [are to] be used for the benefit of all mankind.”²¹⁵ Other treaties that embrace the common heritage of mankind principle include the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies;²¹⁶ the 1972 Con- vention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects;²¹⁷ and the 1975 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space.²¹⁸